微處理器及微型計(jì)算機(jī)的發(fā)展概況 第一代微處理器是以Intel公司1971年推出的4004,4040為代表的四位微處理機(jī)。 第二代微處理機(jī)(1973年~1977年),典型代表有:Intel 公司的8080、8085;Motorola公司的M6800以及Zlog公司的Z80。 第三代微處理機(jī) 第三代微機(jī)是以16位機(jī)為代表,基本上是在第二代微機(jī)的基礎(chǔ)上發(fā)展起來的。其中Intel公司的8088。8086是在8085的基礎(chǔ)發(fā)展起來的;M68000是Motorola公司在M6800 的基礎(chǔ)發(fā)展起來的; 第四代微處理機(jī) 以Intel公司1984年10月推出的80386CPU和1989年4月推出的80486CPU為代表, 第五代微處理機(jī)的發(fā)展更加迅猛,1993年3月被命名為PENTIUM的微處理機(jī)面世,98年P(guān)ENTIUM 2又被推向市場。 INTEL CPU 發(fā)展歷史Intel第一塊CPU 4004,4位主理器,主頻108kHz,運(yùn)算速度0.06MIPs(Million Instructions Per Second, 每秒百萬條指令),集成晶體管2,300個,10微米制造工藝,最大尋址內(nèi)存640 bytes,生產(chǎn)曰期1971年11月. 8085,8位主理器,主頻5M,運(yùn)算速度0.37MIPs,集成晶體管6,500個,3微米制造工藝,最大尋址內(nèi)存64KB,生產(chǎn)曰期1976年 8086,16位主理器,主頻4.77/8/10MHZ,運(yùn)算速度0.75MIPs,集成晶體管29,000個,3微米制造工藝,最大尋址內(nèi)存1MB,生產(chǎn)曰期1978年6月. 80486DX,DX2,DX4,32位主理器,主頻25/33/50/66/75/100MHZ,總線頻率33/50/66MHZ,運(yùn)算速度20~60MIPs,集成晶體管1.2M個,1微米制造工藝,168針PGA,最大尋址內(nèi)存4GB,緩存8/16/32/64KB,生產(chǎn)曰期1989年4月 Celeron一代, 主頻266/300MHZ(266/300MHz w/o L2 cache, Covington芯心 (Klamath based),300A/333/366/400/433/466/500/533MHz w/128kB L2 cache, Mendocino核心 (Deschutes-based), 總線頻率66MHz,0.25微米制造工藝,生產(chǎn)曰期1998年4月) Pentium 4 (478針),至今分為三種核心:Willamette核心(主頻1.5G起,FSB400MHZ,0.18微米制造工藝),Northwood核心(主頻1.6G~3.0G,FSB533MHZ,0.13微米制造工藝, 二級緩存512K),Prescott核心(主頻2.8G起,FSB800MHZ,0.09微米制造工藝,1M二級緩存,13條全新指令集SSE3),生產(chǎn)曰期2001年7月. 更大的緩存、更高的頻率、 超級流水線、分支預(yù)測、亂序執(zhí)行超線程技術(shù) 微型計(jì)算機(jī)組成結(jié)構(gòu)單片機(jī)簡介單片機(jī)即單片機(jī)微型計(jì)算機(jī),是將計(jì)算機(jī)主機(jī)(CPU、 內(nèi)存和I/O接口)集成在一小塊硅片上的微型機(jī)。 三、計(jì)算機(jī)編程語言的發(fā)展概況 機(jī)器語言 機(jī)器語言就是0,1碼語言,是計(jì)算機(jī)唯一能理解并直接執(zhí)行的語言。匯編語言 用一些助記符號代替用0,1碼描述的某種機(jī)器的指令系統(tǒng),匯編語言就是在此基礎(chǔ)上完善起來的。高級語言 BASIC,PASCAL,C語言等等。用高級語言編寫的程序稱源程序,它們必須通過編譯或解釋,連接等步驟才能被計(jì)算機(jī)處理。 面向?qū)ο笳Z言 C++,Java等編程語言是面向?qū)ο蟮恼Z言。 1.3 微型計(jì)算機(jī)中信息的表示及運(yùn)算基礎(chǔ)(一) 十進(jìn)制ND有十個數(shù)碼:0~9,逢十進(jìn)一。 例 1234.5=1×103 +2×102 +3×101 +4×100 +5×10-1加權(quán)展開式以10稱為基數(shù),各位系數(shù)為0~9,10i為權(quán)。 一般表達(dá)式:ND= dn-1×10n-1+dn-2×10n-2 +…+d0×100 +d-1×10-1+… (二) 二進(jìn)制NB兩個數(shù)碼:0、1, 逢二進(jìn)一。 例 1101.101=1×23+1×22+0×21+1×20+1×2-1+1×2-3 加權(quán)展開式以2為基數(shù),各位系數(shù)為0、1, 2i為權(quán)。 一般表達(dá)式: NB = bn-1×2n-1 + bn-2×2n-2 +…+b0×20 +b-1×2-1+… (三)十六進(jìn)制NH十六個數(shù)碼0~9、A~F,逢十六進(jìn)一。 例:DFC.8=13×162 +15×161 +12×160 +8×16-1 展開式以十六為基數(shù),各位系數(shù)為0~9,A~F,16i為權(quán)。 一般表達(dá)式: NH= hn-1×16n-1+ hn-2×16n-2+…+ h0×160+ h-1×16-1+… 二、不同進(jìn)位計(jì)數(shù)制之間的轉(zhuǎn)換 (二)二進(jìn)制與十六進(jìn)制數(shù)之間的轉(zhuǎn)換 24=16 ,四位二進(jìn)制數(shù)對應(yīng)一位十六進(jìn)制數(shù)。舉例:(三)十進(jìn)制數(shù)轉(zhuǎn)換成二、十六進(jìn)制數(shù)整數(shù)、小數(shù)分別轉(zhuǎn)換 1.整數(shù)轉(zhuǎn)換法“除基取余”:十進(jìn)制整數(shù)不斷除以轉(zhuǎn)換進(jìn)制基數(shù),直至商為0。每除一次取一個余數(shù),從低位排向高位。舉例: 2. 小數(shù)轉(zhuǎn)換法“乘基取整”:用轉(zhuǎn)換進(jìn)制的基數(shù)乘以小數(shù)部分,直至小數(shù)為0或達(dá)到轉(zhuǎn)換精度要求的位數(shù)。每乘一次取一次整數(shù),從最高位排到最低位。舉例: 三、帶符號數(shù)的表示方法 機(jī)器數(shù):機(jī)器中數(shù)的表示形式。真值: 機(jī)器數(shù)所代表的實(shí)際數(shù)值。舉例:一個8位機(jī)器數(shù)與它的真值對應(yīng)關(guān)系如下: 真值: X1=+84=+1010100B X2=-84= -1010100B 機(jī)器數(shù):[X1]機(jī)= 01010100 [X2]機(jī)= 11010100(二)原碼、反碼、補(bǔ)碼最高位為符號位,0表示 “+”,1表示“-”。 數(shù)值位與真值數(shù)值位相同。 例 8位原碼機(jī)器數(shù): 真值: x1 = +1010100B x2 =- 1010100B 機(jī)器數(shù): [x1]原 = 01010100 [x2]原 = 11010100原碼表示簡單直觀,但0的表示不唯一,加減運(yùn)算復(fù)雜。 正數(shù)的反碼與原碼表示相同。 負(fù)數(shù)反碼符號位為 1,數(shù)值位為原碼數(shù)值各位取反。 例 8位反碼機(jī)器數(shù): x= +4: [x]原= 00000100 [x]反= 00000100 x= -4: [x]原= 10000100 [x]反= 111110113、補(bǔ)碼(Two’s Complement)正數(shù)的補(bǔ)碼表示與原碼相同。 負(fù)數(shù)補(bǔ)碼等于2n-abs(x)8位機(jī)器數(shù)表示的真值四、 二進(jìn)制編碼例:求十進(jìn)制數(shù)876的BCD碼 876= 1000 0111 0110 BCD 876= 36CH = 1101101100B 2、字符編碼 美國標(biāo)準(zhǔn)信息交換碼ASCII碼,用于計(jì)算 機(jī)與計(jì)算機(jī)、計(jì)算機(jī)與外設(shè)之間傳遞信息。 3、漢字編碼 “國家標(biāo)準(zhǔn)信息交換用漢字編碼”(GB2312-80標(biāo)準(zhǔn)),簡稱國標(biāo)碼。 用兩個七位二進(jìn)制數(shù)編碼表示一個漢字 例如“巧”字的代碼是39H、41H漢字內(nèi)碼例如“巧”字的代碼是0B9H、0C1H1·4 運(yùn)算基礎(chǔ) 一、二進(jìn)制數(shù)的運(yùn)算加法規(guī)則:“逢2進(jìn)1” 減法規(guī)則:“借1當(dāng)2” 乘法規(guī)則:“逢0出0,全1出1”二、二—十進(jìn)制數(shù)的加、減運(yùn)算 BCD數(shù)的運(yùn)算規(guī)則 循十進(jìn)制數(shù)的運(yùn)算規(guī)則“逢10進(jìn)1”。但計(jì)算機(jī)在進(jìn)行這種運(yùn)算時會出現(xiàn)潛在的錯誤。為了解決BCD數(shù)的運(yùn)算問題,采取調(diào)整運(yùn)算結(jié)果的措施:即“加六修正”和“減六修正”例:10001000(BCD)+01101001(BCD) =000101010111(BCD) 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 + 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 + 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 ……調(diào)整 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 進(jìn)位 例: 10001000(BCD)- 01101001(BCD)= 00011001(BCD) 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 - 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 - 0 1 1 0 ……調(diào)整 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 三、 帶符號二進(jìn)制數(shù)的運(yùn)算 1.5 幾個重要的數(shù)字邏輯電路編碼器譯碼器計(jì)數(shù)器微機(jī)自動工作的條件程序指令順序存放自動跟蹤指令執(zhí)行1.6 微機(jī)基本結(jié)構(gòu)微機(jī)結(jié)構(gòu)各部分組成連接方式1、以CPU為中心的雙總線結(jié)構(gòu);2、以內(nèi)存為中心的雙總線結(jié)構(gòu);3、單總線結(jié)構(gòu)CPU結(jié)構(gòu)管腳特點(diǎn) 1、多功能;2、分時復(fù)用內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu) 1、控制; 2、運(yùn)算; 3、寄存器; 4、地址程序計(jì)數(shù)器堆棧定義 1、定義;2、管理;3、堆棧形式
上傳時間: 2013-10-17
上傳用戶:erkuizhang
This application note describes how to build a system that can be used for determining theoptimal phase shift for a Double Data Rate (DDR) memory feedback clock. In this system, theDDR memory is controlled by a controller that attaches to either the OPB or PLB and is used inan embedded microprocessor application. This reference system also uses a DCM that isconfigured so that the phase of its output clock can be changed while the system is running anda GPIO core that controls that phase shift. The GPIO output is controlled by a softwareapplication that can be run on a PowerPC® 405 or Microblaze™ microprocessor.
上傳時間: 2013-10-15
上傳用戶:euroford
Xilinx FPGAs require at least two power supplies: VCCINTfor core circuitry and VCCO for I/O interface. For the latestXilinx FPGAs, including Virtex-II Pro, Virtex-II and Spartan-3, a third auxiliary supply, VCCAUX may be needed. Inmost cases, VCCAUX can share a power supply with VCCO.The core voltages, VCCINT, for most Xilinx FPGAs, rangefrom 1.2V to 2.5V. Some mature products have 3V, 3.3Vor 5V core voltages. Table 1 shows the core voltagerequirement for most of the FPGA device families. TypicalI/O voltages (VCCO) vary from 1.2V to 3.3V. The auxiliaryvoltage VCCAUX is 2.5V for Virtex-II Pro and Spartan-3, andis 3.3V for Virtex-II.
上傳時間: 2013-10-22
上傳用戶:liu999666
針對傳統(tǒng)集成電路(ASIC)功能固定、升級困難等缺點(diǎn),利用FPGA實(shí)現(xiàn)了擴(kuò)頻通信芯片STEL-2000A的核心功能。使用ISE提供的DDS IP核實(shí)現(xiàn)NCO模塊,在下變頻模塊調(diào)用了硬核乘法器并引入CIC濾波器進(jìn)行低通濾波,給出了DQPSK解調(diào)的原理和實(shí)現(xiàn)方法,推導(dǎo)出一種簡便的引入?仔/4固定相移的實(shí)現(xiàn)方法。采用模塊化的設(shè)計(jì)方法使用VHDL語言編寫出源程序,在Virtex-II Pro 開發(fā)板上成功實(shí)現(xiàn)了整個系統(tǒng)。測試結(jié)果表明該系統(tǒng)正確實(shí)現(xiàn)了STEL-2000A的核心功能。 Abstract: To overcome drawbacks of ASIC such as fixed functionality and upgrade difficulty, FPGA was used to realize the core functions of STEL-2000A. This paper used the DDS IP core provided by ISE to realize the NCO module, called hard core multiplier and implemented CIC filter in the down converter, described the principle and implementation detail of the demodulation of DQPSK, and derived a simple method to introduce a fixed phase shift of ?仔/4. The VHDL source code was designed by modularity method , and the complete system was successfully implemented on Virtex-II Pro development board. Test results indicate that this system successfully realize the core function of the STEL-2000A.
標(biāo)簽: STEL 2000 FPGA 擴(kuò)頻通信
上傳時間: 2013-11-06
上傳用戶:liu123
為了在CDMA系統(tǒng)中更好地應(yīng)用QDPSK數(shù)字調(diào)制方式,在分析四相相對移相(QDPSK)信號調(diào)制解調(diào)原理的基礎(chǔ)上,設(shè)計(jì)了一種QDPSK調(diào)制解調(diào)電路,它包括串并轉(zhuǎn)換、差分編碼、四相載波產(chǎn)生和選相、相干解調(diào)、差分譯碼和并串轉(zhuǎn)換電路。在MAX+PLUSⅡ軟件平臺上,進(jìn)行了編譯和波形仿真。綜合后下載到復(fù)雜可編程邏輯器件EPM7128SLC84-15中,測試結(jié)果表明,調(diào)制電路能正確選相,解調(diào)電路輸出數(shù)據(jù)與QDPSK調(diào)制輸入數(shù)據(jù)完全一致,達(dá)到了預(yù)期的設(shè)計(jì)要求。 Abstract: In order to realize the better application of digital modulation mode QDPSK in the CDMA system, a sort of QDPSK modulation-demodulation circuit was designed based on the analysis of QDPSK signal modulation-demodulation principles. It included serial/parallel conversion circuit, differential encoding circuit, four-phase carrier wave produced and phase chosen circuit, coherent demodulation circuit, difference decoding circuit and parallel/serial conversion circuit. And it was compiled and simulated on the MAX+PLUSⅡ software platform,and downloaded into the CPLD of EPM7128SLC84-15.The test result shows that the modulation circuit can exactly choose the phase,and the output data of the demodulator circuit is the same as the input data of the QDPSK modulate. The circuit achieves the prospective requirement of the design.
標(biāo)簽: QDPSK CPLD 調(diào)制解調(diào) 電路設(shè)計(jì)
上傳時間: 2014-01-13
上傳用戶:qoovoop
波長信號的解調(diào)是實(shí)現(xiàn)光纖光柵傳感網(wǎng)絡(luò)的關(guān)鍵,基于現(xiàn)有的光纖光柵傳感器解調(diào)方法,提出一種基于FPGA的雙匹配光纖光柵解調(diào)方法,此系統(tǒng)是一種高速率、高精度、低成本的解調(diào)系統(tǒng),并且通過引入雙匹配光柵有效地克服了雙值問題同時擴(kuò)大了檢測范圍。分析了光纖光柵的測溫原理并給出了該方案軟硬件設(shè)計(jì),綜合考慮系統(tǒng)的解調(diào)精度和FPGA的處理速度給出了基于拉格朗日的曲線擬合算法。 Abstract: Sensor is one of the most important application of the fiber grating. Wavelength signal demodulating is the key techniques to carry out fiber grating sensing network, based on several existing methods of fiber grating sensor demodulation inadequate, a two-match fiber grating demodulation method was presented. This system is a high-speed, high precision, low-cost demodulation system. And by introducing a two-match grating effectively overcomes the problem of double value while expands the scope of testing. This paper analyzes the principle of fiber Bragg grating temperature and gives the software and hardware design of the program. Considering the system of demodulation accuracy and processing speed of FPGA,this paper gives the curve fitting algorithm based on Lagrange.
標(biāo)簽: FPGA 光纖光柵 解調(diào)系統(tǒng)
上傳時間: 2014-07-24
上傳用戶:caiguoqing
L2TP(Layer Two tunneling Protocol)是實(shí)現(xiàn)二層隧道VPN(Virtual Private Network)的主要技術(shù),有L2TPV2和L2TPV3兩個協(xié)議標(biāo)準(zhǔn);為了進(jìn)一步提高私有網(wǎng)絡(luò)的安全性,本文研究了VPN和L2TP隧道技術(shù)的基本實(shí)現(xiàn)技術(shù),并在現(xiàn)有L2TPV2協(xié)議非對稱工作模型的基礎(chǔ)上實(shí)現(xiàn)了向下兼容的支持對稱工作模型的L2TPV3協(xié)議,并對系統(tǒng)的功能和性能進(jìn)行了測試和分析,測試結(jié)果顯示該實(shí)現(xiàn)方案能夠正常完成L2TPV3隧道的建立以及協(xié)議報(bào)文的收發(fā),且系統(tǒng)性能穩(wěn)定。
標(biāo)簽: L2TPV3
上傳時間: 2013-10-31
上傳用戶:iven
The Tri-Mode Ethernet MAC (TEMAC) UltraController-II module is a minimal footprint,embedded network processing engine based on the PowerPC™ 405 (PPC405) processor coreand the TEMAC core embedded within a Virtex™-4 FX Platform FPGA. The TEMACUltraController-II module connects to an external PHY through Gigabit Media IndependentInterface (GMII) and Management Data Input/Output (MDIO) interfaces and supports tri-mode(10/100/1000 Mb/s) Ethernet. Software running from the processor cache reads and writesthrough an On-Chip Memory (OCM) interface to two FIFOs that act as buffers between thedifferent clock domains of the PPC405 OCM and the TEMAC.
上傳時間: 2013-10-26
上傳用戶:yuzsu
特點(diǎn) 最高輸入頻率 10KHz 計(jì)數(shù)速度 50/10000脈波/秒可選擇 四種輸入模式可選擇(加算,減算,加減算,90度相位差加減算) 90度相位差加減算具有提高解析度4倍功能 輸入脈波具有預(yù)設(shè)刻度功能 計(jì)數(shù)暫時停止功能 3組報(bào)警功能 15BIT類比輸出功能 數(shù)位RS-485界面 2:主要規(guī)格 脈波輸入型式: Jump-pin selectable current sourcing(NPN) or current sinking (PNP) 脈波觸發(fā)電位: HI bias (CMOS) (VIH=7.5V, VIL=5.5V) LO bias (TTL) (VIH=3.7V, VIL=2.0V) 最高輸入頻率: <10KHz (up,down,up/down mode) <3KHz (quadrature mode) 輸出動作時間 : 0.1 to 99.9 second adjustable 輸出復(fù)歸方式: Manual(N) or automatic (R or C) can be modif 繼電器容量: AC 250V-5A, DC 30V-7A 顯示值范圍: -199999 to 999999 類比輸出解析度: 15 bit DAC 輸出反應(yīng)速度: < 1/f+10ms(0-90%) 輸出負(fù)載能力: < 10mA for voltage mode < 10V for current mode <[(V+)-7.5V]/20mA for two-wire mode 輸出之漣波: < 0.1% F.S. 通訊位址: "01"-"FF" 傳輸速度: 19200/9600/4800/2400 selective 通信協(xié)議: Modbus RTU mode 顯示幕: Red high efficiency LEDs high 14.22mm (.56") 參數(shù)設(shè)定方式: Touch switches 感應(yīng)器電源: 12VDC +/-3%(<60mA) 記憶方式: Non-volatile E2PROM memory 絕緣耐壓能力: 2KVac/1 min. (input/output/power) 1600Vdc (input/output) 使用環(huán)境條件: 0-50℃(20 to 90% RH non-condensed) 存放環(huán)境條件: 0-70℃(20 to 90% RH non-condensed) CE認(rèn)證: EN 55022:1998/A1:2000 Class A EN 61000-3-2:2000 EN 61000-3-3:1995/A1:2001 EN 55024:1998/A1:2001
上傳時間: 2013-11-23
上傳用戶:redmoons
多遠(yuǎn)程二極管溫度傳感器-Design Considerations for pc thermal management Multiple RDTS (remote diode temperature sensing) provides the most accurate method of sensing an IC’s junction temperature. It overcomes thermal gradient and placement issues encountered when trying to place external sensors. PCB component count decreases when using a device that provides multiple inputs.Better temperature sensing improves product performance and reliability. Disk drive data integrity suffers at elevated temperatures. IBM published an article stating that a 5°C rise in operating temperature causes a 15% increase in the drive’s failure rate. The overall performance of a system can be improved by providing a more accurate temperature measurement of the most critical devices allowing them to run just a few degrees hotter.The LM83 directly senses its own temperature and the temperature of three external PN junctions. One is dedicated to the CPU of choice, the other two go to other parts of your system that need thermal monitoring such as the disk drive or graphics chip. The SMBus-compatible LM83 supports SMBus timeout and logic levels. The LM83 has two interrupt outputs; one for user-programmable limits and WATCHDOG capability (INT), the other is a Critical Temperature Alarm output (T_CRIT_A) for system power supply shutdown.
標(biāo)簽: Considerat Design 遠(yuǎn)程 二極管
上傳時間: 2014-12-21
上傳用戶:ljd123456
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